The Environmental Risks of Deep Seabed Mining

By Laura ThomsonOct 20 2021

Filho, W et al. recently released a journal paper looking at the legal aspects of deep seabed mining (DSM) and the environmental risks it poses. The paper also suggests key issues miners will need to consider to significantly lower the environmental effects of DSM. This article takes a closer look at the paper.

Image Credit: Lillac/Shutterstock.com

The demand for minerals—specifically, strategic metals such as cobalt, nickel, copper, and manganese—has been steadily increasing with population growth and changing consumption patterns in the developing world. Certain lab-based alloys can substitute minerals but pose limitations, so mining activities will inevitably continue.

Several countries have started restricting cheap, detrimental mining activities, leading to a higher interest in using deep seabed minerals. The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 12 targets clean manufacturing and the sustainable use of minerals to meet various industrial demands.

At present, almost all mineral resources are extracted from terrestrial ore deposits. However, high-capacity and high-quality ore deposits are becoming arduous to unearth, so the search expands to the deep seabed as an alternative for low-grade mining. Island countries occupy the deep-sea area within their territorial waters and Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ), which is an area that sovereign states have special rights to explore and use their marine resources.

The deep seabed is generally an area 200 m below sea level. It is regulated by the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), called the “Constitution for the oceans.” This legal system facilitates the peaceful settling of disputes and the protection of the oceanic environment and ecosystems.

The Convention was the basis for establishing the International Seabed Authority (ISA) or “the Authority” that aims to regulate activities in the deep seabed to prevent damage to ecosystems and biodiversity. Article 136 of the Convention indicates that the main objective of the deep seabed mining code is regulating the exploitation and development of mineral resources.

No commercial deep-seabed mining activities have occurred so far. This emergent industry took many years to develop due to the limited availability of technology, the cost-benefit dilemma, and the potential and expected environmental impacts.

The Legal Aspects of Deep-Sea Mining

Human interest in mineral extraction from the deep sea has been increasing ever since discovering metals and minerals but interest in DSM did not start before the 1960s. Besides issues with jurisdiction, enforcement, etc., important international DSM players, such as the United States, are not members of the ISA, which could undermine the efforts toward lowering the potential risks of DSM.

Apart from the ISA, other international laws are relevant to DSM. For example, the multilateral agreement of the G7 summit might be a powerful legal and political action to the ISA.

A moratorium on commercial DSM would apply if there were some proof of serious, irreversible damage. However, this resolution is not binding, and no impact on the sponsoring of ISA contracts has been observed until now, further buttressing the need to review the potential environmental impacts of DSM.

Methodology

The desktop study research approach was employed to review and synthesize key insights offered by existing studies on the environmental risks of DSM. Literature from secondary sources about the general environmental impacts of DSM was identified, gathered, and analyzed.

Articles published since the year 2000 were considered since that was the beginning of ISA regulations. Two case studies of DSM were selected so that one (Patania II) is located within the “Area”, and the other case of seabed mining (Solwara I) is outside the Area.

Results

Examples for DSM mining operations and explorations are provided in Table 1. Technological setbacks, difficult international negotiations, and volatile prices for precious metals led to delays, and explorations were even abandoned.

Table 1. DSM operations on Continental Shelves and “the area.” Source: Filho et al., 2021

The major activities that cause impacts and environmental issues related to DSM are summarized in Table 2. The first two categorized are activities that cause impacts, which are related to sediments from mining activities and mine tailings, and the toxicity of sediments. The third category consists of the potential impacts on plants and animals.

Table 2. Major risk-prone DSM activities and their potential impacts on the environment. Source: Filho et al., 2021

Case Study A: Patania II (Continental Shelf)

Patania II is the provisional name of a pre-prototype collector vehicle that is to be used for DSM of nodules on the seafloor in the Clarion–Clipperton Fracture Zone (CCFZ) shown in Figure 1. The vehicle is intended for scientific projects to deliver information about the technological feasibility and the likely environmental impacts of mining activities.

Figure 1. The location of Patania II in the North Pacific Ocean (map created by the authors). Image Credit: Filho et al., 2021

An overview of the environmental risks related to this project is provided in Table 3.

Table 3. Some of the environmental risks of the Patania II project (modified from GSR). Source: Filho et al., 2021

Case Study B: Solwara I

The Solwara I project, whose location is shown in Figure 2, was expected to be the world’s first large-scale DSM activity. The fields in the area contain a rich deposit of seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) with base metals, copper, and zinc (Table 4), as well as relatively high grades of gold and silver.

Figure 2. The location of Solwara I in the Bismarck Sea. Image Credit: Filho et al., 2021

Table 4. Indicated and inferred mineral resources for Solwara I. Source: Filho et al., 2021

Several potential and project-related environmental impacts of this project have been identified (see Table 5).

Table 5. Overview of the environmental issues related to the Solwara I project. Source: Filho et al., 2021

Discussion

The DSM process has the potential of causing physical and environmental damages to the marine ecosystem. According to Deep Green, DSM is dominated by western private mining companies to serve their economic interests while portraying the illusion that the practice is a universal public good. However, the literature and both case studies reviewed in the previous section reveal various significant impacts on the biological, chemical, and physical seafloor environment.

Benthic organisms are likely to be buried, and the respiratory surfaces of filter feeders can be clogged. There is also a growing concern about the effects of sediment plumes on the midwater fauna.

The DSM process may also cause light and sound pollution, affecting many marine species, such as fish, mammals, and invertebrates. Potential adverse effects of noise on marine species are seen in behavior changes, reduced communication ranges and foraging ability, decreased predator prevention, and habitat avoidance. Lighting may induce temporary blindness or deteriorated bioluminescence functions.

The seabed can be significantly disturbed, likely leading to a micro-topography change. Disturbing the seabed through waste disposal will also impact marine animal and plant species and biodiversity.

Other hazards that may affect the water and air quality can be caused by leaks of hydraulic fluids, fuel spills, unexpected equipment malfunctions, and greenhouse gas emissions from operations.

Developing and implementing monitoring and mitigation measures is significant to reducing the harmful effect of DSM on the marine ecosystem and human health. These measures can help to avoid or minimize harming the ecosystem while restoring and maintaining its resilience.

Conclusions

The issue of DSM is a complex one with a high significance. Although the magnitude of potential environmental impacts is difficult to describe and assess, it is obvious that severe and irreparable environmental impacts at the mining sites will occur.

The case studies presented in this article show how vulnerable deep-sea ecosystems are and the many risks that DSM poses, indicating that adequate mechanisms are needed to regulate DSM and minimize its environmental impacts properly.

Since the worldwide demand for minerals is growing, there is a pressing need to establish standard environmental impact assessments and ecosystem conservation procedures. Only these procedures can ensure that mining operations in the international seabed area do not lead to catastrophic consequences.

Journal Reference:

Filho, W. L., Abubakar I. R., Nunes C., Platje J. J., Ozuyar P. G., Will M., Nagy G. J., Al-Amin A. Q., Hunt J. D., Li C., (2021) Deep Seabed Mining: A Note on Some Potentials and Risks to the Sustainable Mineral Extraction from the Oceans. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. Available at: doi.org/10.3390/jmse9050521.

References and Further Reading

1. UN-DESA (2019). World Population Prospects 2019: Highlights; ST/ESA/SER.A/423; United Nations: New York, NY, USA.
2. Sharma, R (2015) Environmental issues of deep-sea mining. Procedia Earth and Planetary Science, 11, pp. 204–211. doi.org/10.1016/j.proeps.2015.06.026.
3. Dai, Y., et al. (2019) Mechanical tests and numerical simulations for mining seafloor massive sulfides. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 7, p. 252. doi.org/10.3390/jmse7080252.
4. Ali, S. H., et al. (2017) Mineral supply for sustainable development requires resource governance. Nature Cell Biology, 543, pp. 367–372. doi.org/10.1038/nature21359.
5. Petersen, S., et al. (2016) News from the seabed—Geological characteristics and resource potential of deep-sea mineral resources. Marine Policy, 70, pp. 175–187. doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2016.03.012.
6. Koh, T B (1983) A Constitution for the Ocean. In The Law of the Sea: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea; United Nations: New York, NY, USA.
7. UN DOALOS (United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and Law of the Sea) (2019) Declarations or Statements upon UNCLOS Ratification. Available at: https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_declarations.htm
8. International Seabed Authority (2019) Document ISBA/25/C/WP.1. Draft Regulations on Exploitation of Mineral Resources in the Area. Available at: https://undocs.org/en/ISBA/25/C/WP.1
9. Gerber, L J & Grogan, R L (2020) Challenges of operationalising good industry practice and best environmental practice in deep seabed mining regulation. Marine Policy, 114, p. 4639. doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.09.002.
10. Cuyvers, L., (2018) Deep Seabed Mining, a Rising Environmental Challenge; International Union for Conservation of Nature: Gland, Switzerland.
11. Okamoto, N., et al. (2019) World’s first lifting test for seafloor massive sulphides in the Okinawa Trough in the EEZ of Japan. In Proceedings of the 29th International Ocean and Polar Engineering Conference, International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers, Honolulu, HI, USA, 16–21 June.
12. Hein, J. R., et al. (2013) Deep-ocean mineral deposits as a source of critical metals for high- and green-technology applications: Comparison with land-based resources. Ore Geology Reviews, 51, pp. 1–14. doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2012.12.001.
13. Hannington, M., et al. (2011) The abundance of seafloor massive sulfide deposits. Geology, 39, pp. 1155–1158. doi.org/10.1130/G32468.1.
14. Auster, P. J., et al. (2011) Definition and detection of vulnerable marine ecosystems on the high seas: Problems with the “move-on” rule. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 68, pp. 254–264. doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsq074.
15. Danovaro, R., et al. (2017) An ecosystem-based deep-ocean strategy. Science, 355, pp. 452–454. doi.org/10.1126/science.aah7178.
16. Hoagland, P., et al. (2010) Deep-sea mining of seafloor massive sulfides. Marine Policy, 34, pp. 728–732. doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2009.12.001.
17. Oh, J.-W., et al. (2014) A study of the kinematic characteristic of a coupling device between the buffer system and the flexible pipe of a deep-seabed mining system. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, 6, pp. 652–669. doi.org/10.2478/IJNAOE-2013-0203.
18. Cho, S.-G., et al. (2019) Design optimization of deep-seabed pilot miner system with coupled relations between constraints. Journal of Terramechanics, 83, pp. 25–34. doi.org/10.1016/j.jterra.2019.01.003.
19. Schrijver, N (2016) Managing the global commons: Common good or common sink? Third World Quarterly, 37, pp. 1252–1267. doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2016.1154441.
20. Miller, K. A., et al. (2018) An Overview of Seabed Mining Including the Current State of Development, Environmental Impacts, and Knowledge Gaps. Frontiers in Marine Science, 4, p. 418. doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00418.
21. United Nations General Assembly (2018). Draft Text of an Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction. In Proceedings of the Intergovernmental Conference on an International Legally Binding Instrument under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction, New York, NY, USA, 4–17 September.
22. Tanaka, Y (2012) The International Law of the Sea; Cambridge University Press: New York, NY, USA.
23. European Parliament (2018) European Parliament Resolution of 16 January 2018 on International Ocean Governance: An agenda for the Future of Our Oceans in the Context of the 2030 SDGs. Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-8-2018-0004_EN.html (accessed on 5 December 2020).
24. Abubakar, I R & Aina, Y A (2019) The prospects and challenges of developing more inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable cities in Nigeria. Land Use Policy, 87, p. 104105. doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.104105.
25. Hauton, C., et al. (2017) Identifying Toxic Impacts of Metals Potentially Released during Deep-Sea Mining—A Synthesis of the Challenges to Quantifying Risk. Frontiers in Marine Science, 4, p. 368. doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00368.
26. Cormier, R & Londsdale, J (2020) Environmental governance of deep seabed mining—Scientific insights and food for thought. Risk assessment for deep sea mining: An overview of risk. Marine Policy, 114, p. 103485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103827.
27. Kim, R E (2017) Should deep seabed mining be allowed? Marine Policy, 82, pp. 134–137. doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.05.010.
28. Geomar (2019) ISA Contract Status for Exploration in the ‘Area beyond National Jurisdiction’, Last Update: 21 November.
29. Beaudoin, Y & Baker, E (Eds) (2013) Deep Sea Minerals: Manganese Nodules, a Physical, Biological, Environmental and Technical Review; Secretariat of the Pacific Community: Noumea, Australia.
30. Sharma, R., et al. (2001) Sediment redistribution during simulated benthic disturbance and its implications on deep seabed mining. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 48, pp. 3363–3380. doi.org/10.1016/S0967-0645(01)00046-7.
31. Dover, C., et al. (2011) Environmental Management of Deep-Sea Chemosynthetic Ecosystems: Justification of and Considerations for a Spatially Based Approach. International Seabed Authority Technical Study, 9, pp. 1–90. Available at: https://www.isa.org.jm/publications/technical-study-9-environmental-management-of-deep-sea-chemosynthetic-ecosystems-justification-of-and-considerations-for-a-spatially-based-approach/.
32. Peukert, A., et al. (2018) Understanding Mn-nodule distribution and evaluation of related deep-sea mining impacts using AUV-based hydroacoustic and optical data. Biogeosciences, 15, pp. 2525–2549. doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-2525-2018.
33. Weaver, P. P. E., et al. (2018) Environmental Risks of Deep-sea Mining. In Handbook on Marine Environment Protection: Science, Impacts and Sustainable Management; Salomon, M & Markus, T (Eds); Springer Science and Business Media LLC: Berlin, Germany; pp. 215–245.
34. Gillard, B., et al. (2019) Physical and hydrodynamic properties of deep sea mining-generated, abyssal sediment plumes in the Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone (eastern-central Pacific). Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 7. 
35. Drazen, J. C., et al. (2020) Opinion: Midwater ecosystems must be considered when evaluating environmental risks of deep-sea mining. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117, pp. 17455–17460. doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2011914117.
36. Boschen, R. E., et al. (2013) Mining of deep-sea seafloor massive sulfides: A review of the deposits, their benthic communities, impacts from mining, regulatory frameworks and management strategies. Ocean & Coastal Management, 84, pp. 54–67. doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.07.005.
37. Collins, P., et al. (2013) A primer for the Environmental Impact Assessment of mining at seafloor massive sulfide deposits. Marine Policy, 42, pp. 198–209. doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2013.01.020.
38. Baker, M. C., et al. (2010) Biogeography, Ecology, and Vulnerability of Chemosynthetic Ecosystems in the Deep Sea. In Diversity, Distribution, and Abundance; McIntyre, A., Ed.; Blackwell Publishing Ltd.: Oxford, UK; pp. 161–182.
39. Jones, D. O. B., et al. (2017) Biological responses to disturbance from simulated deep-sea polymetallic nodule mining. PLoS ONE, 12, pp. 1–26. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0171750.
40. Ramirez-Llodra, E., et al. (2011) Man and the Last Great Wilderness: Human Impact on the Deep Sea. PLoS ONE, 6, pp. 1–25. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0171750.
41. Glover, A G & Smith, C R (2003) The deep-sea floor ecosystem: Current status and prospects of anthropogenic change by the year 2025. Environmental Conservation, 30, pp. 219–241. doi.org/10.1017/S0376892903000225.
42. Van Dover, C L (2014) Impacts of anthropogenic disturbances at deep-sea hydrothermal vent ecosystems: A review. Marine Environmental Research, 102, pp. 59–72. doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2014.03.008.
43. Van Dover, C. L., et al. (2007) A fungal epizootic in mussels at a deep-sea hydrothermal vent. Marine Ecology, 28, pp. 54–62. doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0485.2006.00121.x.
44. Gollner, S., et al. (2017) Resilience of benthic deep-sea fauna to mining activities. Marine Environmental Research, 129, pp. 76–101. doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2017.04.010.
45. Halfar, J & Fujita, R (2007) Ecology. Danger of deep-sea mining. Science, 316, p. 987. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1138289.
46. Gena, K (2013) Deep Sea Mining of Submarine Hydrothermal Deposits and its Possible Environmental Impact in Manus Basin, Papua New Guinea. Procedia Earth and Planetary Science, 6, pp. 226–233. doi.org/10.1016/j.proeps.2013.01.031.
47. GSR (2019) Environmental Impact Statement Small-Scale Testing of Nodule Collector Components on the Seafloor of the Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone and Its Environmental Impact; Global Sea Mineral Resources NV: Ostend, Belgium.
48. Bundesanstalt fur Geowissenshaften und Rohstoffee (BGR) (2018) Environmental Impact Assessment for the Testing of a Pre-Protoype Manganese Nodule Collector Vehicle in the Eastern German License Area (Clarion-Clipperton Zone) in the Framework of the European JPI-O Mining Impact 2 Research Project; Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources: Hanover, Germany.
49. DEME (2020) Patania II Technical Update. n.d.
50. SPC (The Secretariat of the Pacific Community, European Union) (2013) Deep Sea Minerals in the Pacific Islands Region a Legal and Fiscal Framework for Sustainable Resource Management Project. Summary Highlights. Available at: https://dsm.gsd.spc.int/public/files/meetings/TrainingWorkshop4/UNEP_summary.pdf (accessed on 5 February 2020).
51. Jankowski, P (2012) NI43-101 Technical Report 2011: PNG, Tonga, Fiji, Solomon Islands, New Zealand, Vanuatu and the ISA; No. NAT008; Nautilus Minerals Inc.: Toronto, ON, Canada.
52. Beaulieu, S. E., et al. (2017) Should we mine the deep seafloor? Earth’s Future, 5, pp. 655–658. doi.org/10.1002/2017EF000605.
53. Lipton, I T (2008). Mineral Resource Estimate, Solwara 1 project, Bismark Sea, Papua New Guinea. Canadian NI43-101 form F1. Elements, 14, pp. 301–306.
54. Gwyther, D (2008) Solwara 1 Project. Main Report. Coffey Natural Systems Pty Ltd. In Environmental Impact Statement; Nautilus Minerals Niugini Limited: Brisbane, Australia.
55. Gwyther, D (2008) Solwara 1 Project. Executive Summary. Coffey Natural Systems Pty Ltd. In Environmental Impact Statement; Nautilus Minerals Niugini Limited: Brisbane, Australia.
56. Washburn, T. W., et al. (2019) Ecological risk assessment for deep-sea mining. Ocean & Coastal Management, 176, pp. 24–39. doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2019.04.014.
57. Nautilus Minerals Inc. (2016) Polymetallic Nodules in the CCZ; Nautilus Minerals Inc: Vancouver, BC, Canada; Available at: https://dsmf.im/
58. Deep Sea Mining Campaign, London Mining Network, Mining Watch Canada (2019) Why the Rush? Seabed Mining in the Pacific Ocean. 
59. Casson, L (2019) Deep Water—The Emerging Threat of Deep Sea Mining; Technical Report for Greenpeace International; Greenpeace International: Vancouver, BC, Canada.
60. Deep Green (2020) Response to Greenpeace Report.
61. Jones, D. O., et al. (2019) Existing environmental management approaches relevant to deep-sea mining. Marine Policy, 103, pp. 172–181. doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2019.01.006.
62. Aguilar de Soto, N & Kight, C (2016) Physiological effects of noise on aquatic animals. In Stressors in the Marine Environment; Solan, M & Whiteley, N M (Eds); Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK; pp. 135–158.
63. Stanley, J A & Jeffs, A G (2016) Ecological impacts of anthropogenic underwater noise. In Stressors in the Marine Environment; Solan, M & Whiteley, N M (Eds); Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK; pp. 282–297.
64. Ortega, A (Ed.) (2014) Towards Zero Impact of Deep Sea Offshore Projects—An Assessment Framework for Future Environmental Studies of Deep-Sea and Offshore Mining Projects; Technical report for IHC Merwede; IHC Merwede: Kinderdijk, The Netherlands.
65. Jung, H. S., et al. (2001) Characteristics of Seafloor Morphology and Ferromanganese Nodule Occurrence in the Korea Deep-sea Environmental Study (KODES) Area, NE Equatorial Pacific. Marine Georesources & Geotechnology, 19, pp. 167–180. doi.org/10.1080/10641190109353811.
66. Niner, H. J., et al. (2018) Deep-Sea Mining With No Net Loss of Biodiversity—An Impossible Aim. Frontiers in Marine Science, 5, pp. 1–12. doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00053.
67. Chowdhury, M. M. I., et al. (2021) A review of policies and initiatives for climate change mitigation and environmental sustainability in Bangladesh. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 23, pp. 1133–1161. doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00627-y.
68. Abubakar, I R (2021) Predictors of inequalities in land ownership among Nigerian households: Implications for sustainable development. Land Use Policy, 101, p. 105194. doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105194.
69. Wolfrum, R (2010) Legitimacy of international law and the exercise of administrative functions: The Example of the International Seabed Authority, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and International Fisheries Organizations. In The Exercise of Public Authority by International Institutions; Springer: New York, NY, USA; pp. 917–940.
70. Kung, A., et al. (2021) Governing deep sea mining in the face of uncertainty. Journal of Environmental Management, 279, p. 111593. doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111593.
71. Carver, R., et al. (2020) A critical social perspective on deep sea mining: Lessons from the emergent industry in Japan. Ocean & Coastal Management, 193, p. 105242. doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2020.105242.
72. Takano, S., et al. (2019) Study on Pipe Wear Evaluation Based on Large Scale Experiment for Deep Sea Mining. In Proceedings of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Glasgow, Scotland, UK, 9–14 June; Volume 58837, p. 11.
73. Kasaya, T., et al. (2021) Deep-Sea DC Resistivity and Self-Potential Monitoring System for Environmental Evaluation With Hydrothermal Deposit Mining. Frontiers in Earth Science, 9, p. 85. doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.608381.
74. Kakee, T (2020) Deep-sea mining legislation in Pacific Island countries: From the perspective of public participation in approval procedures. Marine Policy, 117, p. 103881. doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103881.
75. Sparenberg, O (2019) A historical perspective on deep-sea mining for manganese nodules, 1965–2019. The Extractive Industries and Society, 6, pp. 842–854. doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2019.04.001.
76. Smith, C. R., et al. (2020) Deep-sea misconceptions cause underestimation of seabed-mining impacts. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 35, pp. 853–857. doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2020.07.002.
77. Ribeiro, M. C., et al. (2020) Scientific, technical and legal challenges of deep sea mining. A vision for Portugal—Conference report. Marine Policy, 1, p. 114. doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.11.001.
78. ECORYS (2014) Study to Investigate State of Knowledge of Deep Sea Mining. Final Report Annex 5 Ongoing and Planned Activity FWC MARE/2012/06—SC E1/2013/04; Technical Report for DG Maritime Affairs and Fisheries; DG Maritime Affairs and Fisheries: Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Brussels, Belgium.
79. Lusty, P A & Murton, B J (2018) Deep-ocean mineral deposits: Metal resources and windows into earth processes. Elements, 14, pp. 301–306. doi.org/10.2138/gselements.14.5.301.
80. ITLOS (2011) Responsibilities and Obligations of States with Respect to Activities in the Area. Advisory Opinion of 1 February 2011. Available at: https://www.itlos.org/fileadmin/itlos/documents/cases/case_no_17/17_adv_op_010211_en.pdf