Antimony is a shiny, silver-gray element with the atomic number 51. Its chemical symbol is Sb, which comes from its Latin name stibium. Due to its distinct physiochemical properties, antimony is utilized across several industries, including electronics, flame retardants, and batteries.
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With its growing importance in modern technologies, many countries have listed antimony as a critical mineral due to its limited supply. This has led to increased research on finding new sources of antimony, making mining more environmentally friendly, and improving ways to recycle it. Understanding what antimony is and how it is used is essential to support responsible and diverse sourcing in the fast-changing global economy.1
What is Antimony?
Antimony is a metalloid element with metal and nonmetal properties. It appears as a brittle, silvery-gray solid with a metallic shine.
Although it looks like metal and has a melting temperature around 630 °C, antimony does not efficiently conduct heat or electricity. It has the properties of a semiconductor, does not oxidize easily, and is relatively stable in air at room temperature.
In nature, antimony is rarely found in its pure form. It is mainly found as the mineral stibnite (Sb₂S₃), which has been the primary source of antimony extraction.
Antimony has many important industrial uses. However, it also raises health and environmental concerns. Long-term exposure to antimony and its compounds can cause respiratory problems, skin irritation, and digestive problems. Continued exposure may lead to more serious effects, including liver and heart damage. Poor management during mining or processing may lead to soil and water contamination.1
Where is Antimony Found and How is it Mined?
Antimony is mostly found in hydrothermal vein deposits and replacement-type ore bodies, where it commonly occurs as the mineral stibnite. These deposits are often found alongside valuable metals such as gold and silver, making antimony extraction part of larger polymetallic mining operations.
Antimony is mined using underground or open-pit methods, depending on the shape and depth of the ore body. After mining, the ore goes through several steps, such as crushing, grinding, flotation, and sometimes roasting to concentrate the antimony. The final refining step produces either antimony metal or antimony trioxide (Sb₂O₃), depending on the intended industrial use.1,2
Despite its industrial value, antimony mining comes with environmental and economic challenges. Processing stibnite ores can generate acid mine drainage, and poor waste management may lead to heavy metal pollution of nearby water bodies.3,4
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Antimony production is geographically concentrated, with a significant majority produced from a few countries. China dominates global production and accounts for approximately 70–80% of the total supply, followed by other countries such as Russia, Tajikistan, and Bolivia. This heavy reliance on a limited number of sources, particularly on a single dominant supplier, has raised concerns about the stability, security, and resilience of global antimony supply chains. Disruptions in these regions, whether due to geopolitical tensions, export restrictions, or environmental regulations, could pose serious challenges for antimony supply in industries.2
What is Antimony Used For?
Antimony is a highly versatile element, with its compounds and alloys used across multiple industries.
Flame retardants
The most significant industrial application of antimony is in flame retardants, which account for approximately 60% of global demand.
Antimony is typically used in the form of Sb₂O₃, which, along with halogenated compounds, inhibits the spread of flames. These formulations are widely employed in plastics, textiles, insulation materials, and electronic components, ensuring fire resistance in consumer products and construction materials.2
Alloys and metallurgy
Antimony is frequently alloyed with metals such as lead and tin to enhance hardness, mechanical strength, and corrosion resistance. These alloys are crucial in the manufacture of lead-acid batteries (for automotive and backup power), ammunition (bullets and primers), and cable sheathing (especially for underwater and underground power lines).2
Electronics and semiconductors
Antimony’s semi-conductive properties are harnessed in the electronics sector to produce infrared detectors, thermoelectric devices, and diodes.
Antimony-based compounds such as indium antimonide (InSb) and gallium antimonide (GaSb) are used in high-speed transistors, quantum devices, and optoelectronics, where they offer advantages in performance and miniaturization.
Glass and pigments
Antimony acts as a decolorizing agent in glass manufacturing, removing greenish tints caused by iron impurities. It is also used in ceramic pigments to produce yellow and other colorfast tones.1
Recent Developments and Research in Antimony Mining
Recent advances in antimony recovery have focused on enhancing efficiency, reducing environmental impact, and diversifying supply beyond traditional mining.
A recent study published in RSC Advances reports a solvometallurgical process that used ethanol-based hydrochloride (HCl) solutions to extract antimony from poly-vinyl chloride (PVC) waste containing flame retardants. This method achieved ~95% recovery and produced antimony in the form of Sb₄Cl₂O₅ and enabled the co-extraction of organic additives.5
In the context of ore processing, a report in Science of The Total Environment demonstrated that microwave-assisted alkaline sulfide leaching significantly improved antimony recovery from antimony-rich copper concentrates. They achieved 95.7% extraction under milder conditions by integrating microwave heating, with enhanced selectivity and reaction kinetics.4
Another study in Heliyon investigated the electrowinning of antimony from leachates of low-grade Sb2O3 ore. Using both acidic and alkaline leaching systems followed by electrochemical recovery, they reported up to 89% (acidic) and 97% (alkaline) recovery efficiency for high-purity metallic antimony.6
The ongoing research highlights a shift toward sustainable and efficient recovery technologies, which are critical to secure antimony supply chains.
The Future of Antimony Use
Overall, the critical role of antimony in flame retardants, semiconductors, and energy storage technologies leads to the continuous growth in its global demand. However, its limited worldwide production and associated environmental concerns necessitate the development of more sustainable practices.
Ongoing research in alternative extraction techniques, such as solvometallurgy and electrowinning, offers promising pathways for efficient and eco-friendly recovery. Future efforts should prioritize circular economy strategies, improved recycling technologies, and diversification of supply sources to ensure long-term availability and minimize ecological impact.
References and Further Reading
- Sudová, M., et al. (2024). Environmentally friendly leaching of antimony from mining residues using deep eutectic solvents. Processes, 12(3), 555. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12030555
- U.S. Geological Survey. (2024). Antimony – Mineral Commodity Summaries 2024. U.S. Department of the Interior. https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024-antimony.pdf
- Awe, S. A., & Sandström, Å. (2013). Electrowinning of antimony from model sulphide alkaline solutions. Hydrometallurgy, 137, 60–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2013.04.006
- Luo, D., et al. (2024). Selective recovery of antimony from Sb-bearing copper concentrates by integration of alkaline sulphide leaching solutions and microwave-assisted heating. Science of The Total Environment, 951, 175576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175576
- Spooren, J., et al. (2025). Solvometallurgical recovery of antimony from waste polyvinyl chloride plastic and co-extraction of organic additives. RSC Advances, 15(5), 531–540. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4RA07240E
- Sajadi, S. A. A., Khorablou, Z., & Sadeghi Naeini, M. (2024). Recovery of antimony from acidic and alkaline leaching solution of low-grade Sb₂O₃ ore by electrowinning process. Heliyon, 10(8), e35300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35300
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