Thousands of meters below the Pacific Ocean, potato-sized rocks called polymetallic nodules have grown slowly for millions of years. These nodules contain nickel, cobalt, copper, and manganese, which are important metals for electric vehicle batteries and energy storage.
Image Credit: Marine Lens Studio/Shutterstock.com
For many years, it was thought that harvesting these nodules was too expensive and complex. However, in 2026, deep-sea mining has moved closer to reality than at any earlier point, and governments now face a decision with lasting consequences: supporters believe the seafloor could provide new sources of metal for a cleaner economy; on the other hand, critics argue that scientists still know very little about the fragile ecosystems that mining would disrupt.
This article examines the latest regulations, the strategic case for mining, the scientific evidence on environmental harm, and the governance questions that will determine whether the benefits of mining the ocean floor outweigh the risks.1,2
Where Deep-Sea Mining Stands Today
In August of this year, US regulators took a significant step toward potentially authorizing commercial deep-sea mining.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) confirmed that an application from The Metals Company USA to explore and extract minerals from the Pacific Ocean's Clarion-Clipperton Zone was complete enough to proceed to further review.
Although this development does not constitute approval to begin mining, the move is significant because it advances a US-led approval process in international waters, where global mining regulations remain unresolved.
A second track opened closer to US shores in October. The Interior Department's Marine Minerals Administration announced the first federal seabed mineral lease sale, offering about 31 million acres off the coast of American Samoa, with the auction scheduled for later this year.
A winning bid would allow only preliminary work, such as mapping, followed by further regulatory stages. Local groups have already filed a lawsuit in federal court to stop the sale.1
The Race to Secure Critical Minerals
The strongest argument in favor of deep-sea mining is the improvement of supply security. According to the International Energy Agency's 2026
critical minerals outlook, Indonesia has been a significant driver of recent growth in nickel refining, while China has led the expansion of refining for most other essential energy minerals. Following export restrictions imposed by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, cobalt prices surged by about 130%, and the agency now forecasts a potential cobalt supply gap. Such concentration in supply chains puts manufacturers at risk of sudden policy shifts.4
Nodule fields also offer a different geological profile from land deposits. The nodules lie on the surface of flat abyssal plains, so collecting them does not require the deep pits or tunnels typical of land mines. A single nodule contains multiple battery metals, and industry advocates contend that seabed operations would cause significantly less environmental destruction than land-based mining while providing the minerals needed for renewable energy and defense technologies.2
Officials also frame the issue as a matter of national security. NOAA describes the targeted minerals as essential for defense systems, electronics, and renewable energy, and it links domestic access to reduced dependence on foreign supply chains.3
The agency says any certified application would still face a full environmental impact statement with additional public comment. Proponents see this phased review process as evidence that mining can proceed under meaningful oversight.3
The Environmental Costs of Mining the Seafloor
Evidence from the seafloor itself points to slow recovery after mining. In 2025, researchers led by the UK's National Oceanography Center revisited a nodule-mining test site in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone that had been disturbed 44 years earlier.
Inside the collector tracks, many animal groups remained less abundant than in nearby untouched areas. The sediments also showed persistent physical changes, a sign that the habitat had not returned to its earlier state.5
However, the study noted early signs of recovery: some sediment-dwelling macrofauna, mobile deposit feeders, and larger attached animals had begun to return. Similarly, areas affected only by drifting sediment showed limited ongoing effects after 40 years.
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The researchers concluded that the impacts of mining would last for many decades in disturbed areas. They therefore recommend reducing disturbance and protecting a network of untouched regions if commercial mining continues.5
A recent study published in Nature Geoscience raised new questions about how seafloor nodule fields work. Researchers placed chambers among the nodules and found that oxygen levels increased to more than three times the usual amount over two days. The work suggested that electrical potentials on the nodules' surfaces could split seawater.6
Who Gets to Mine the Ocean Floor?
International regulations regarding deep-sea mining remain incomplete. The International Seabed Authority, responsible for overseeing mining in areas beyond national jurisdiction, convened in July 2026 but failed to adopt its long-awaited mining code.2
Moreover, negotiators still disagree on how to share financial benefits and whether the code covers only nodules or also seamounts and hydrothermal vents. Talks will resume in Kingston in March 2027.
Meanwhile, 45 countries have called for a moratorium or precautionary pause on deep-sea mining.2
In parallel, the US process has created legal tension. The 1980 American law is valid domestically, but its standing under international law is disputed. The authority has also opened an inquiry into whether The Metals Company's subsidiaries still meet the obligations under their existing exploration contracts. That dispute has already reached the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, which allowed the inquiry to continue with due process protections.2
Lastly, local consent adds another layer of risk for regulators and investors. Community groups in American Samoa argue that the federal lease sale bypasses existing protections and lacks local approval. Plaintiffs claim that mining operations could smother ecosystems and introduce toxic substances into food webs that feed Samoan households. Legal challenges of this kind can delay projects for years, raise financing costs, and shape how future lease sales are designed.1
Deep-Sea Mining at a Crossroads
Deep-sea mining has reached a pivotal moment. With supply chains under strain and prices escalating, governments have strong reasons to explore the ocean's depths.
However, evidence shows that damaged seafloor communities can remain altered for decades, and many questions about these ecosystems remain unanswered. The rules that decide who can mine and under what terms are not fully established.
Whether deep-sea mining is worth the risk depends on how much certainty societies require before acting. Speeding up approval might help battery makers and defense companies get the minerals they need, while waiting for better scientific understanding and international rules could help prevent long-lasting damage.
Since the seafloor takes decades to recover, the permits, lease sales, and treaty decisions made in the coming months will set terms that future generations will inherit.
References and Further Reading
- Ladao, M. (2026). Deep-sea mining effort in American Samoa moves forward, but legal challenges follow. [Online] Hawai?i Public Radio. Available at: https://www.hawaiipublicradio.org/local-news/2026-10-20/deep-sea-mining-effort-in-american-samoa-moves-forward-but-legal-challenges-follow
- Alberts, E. C. (2026). UN regulator delays deep-sea mining rules, but extends criticized exploration contract. [Online] Mongabay. Available at: https://news.mongabay.com/2026/07/un-regulator-delays-deep-sea-mining-rules-but-extends-criticized-exploration-contract/
- NOAA advances review of first-ever deep seabed mining commercial recovery application. (2026). [Online] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Available at: https://www.noaa.gov/news-release/noaa-advances-review-of-first-ever-deep-seabed-mining-commercial-recovery-application
- Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026. (2026). [Online] International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2026
- Jones, D. O. et al. (2025). Long-term impact and biological recovery in a deep-sea mining track. Nature, 642(8066). DOI:10.1038/s41586-025-08921-3. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08921-3
- Sweetman, A. K. et al. (2024). Evidence of dark oxygen production at the abyssal seafloor. Nature Geoscience, 17(8). DOI:10.1038/s41561-024-01480-8. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01480-8
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